| Introduction Korean pop music, aka K-pop, fuses musical genres to create a distinctive, dance-oriented sound that has become popular in the United States and worldwide, boosting the South Korean economy. BTS, the leading K-pop band, reportedly generates about $4.6 billion annually for the economy, based on music sales, product promotion and increased tourism. The genre is so popular that it has helped make South Korea the world's fastest-growing music market. K-pop groups have sought to extend their influence beyond music by supporting Black Lives Matter, speaking out against child poverty and warning about climate change. But critics accuse K-pop of cultural insensitivity in its use of symbols from Black, Indian and other cultures. One band's video drew condemnation for featuring the statue of a Hindu god, another for performers appearing in blackface. Critics also voice concern about K-pop's grueling training system, known for long hours and low pay. The genre's growing use of digital — that is, fake — musicians is proving controversial as well. 
BTS is considered the Beatles of Korean pop music and is the most successful K-pop band to hit the United States. The fast-growing K-pop industry generates billions for South Korea's economy. (Getty Images/WireImage/John Lamparski) | Go to top Overview Last Aug. 21, David Roberts took the afternoon off from his job in Milwaukee. The 25-year-old project manager had an important task: to watch a new video by his favorite band, BTS, over and over again. Roberts, like other BTS fans worldwide, hoped to help boost the band's “Dynamite” music video on YouTube to a viewing record. “And we did it! We got 101 million views in 24 hours!” Roberts says. Why give up half a day to help seven South Korean musicians he had never met? For the same reason that Roberts is planning a two- to three-week trip to South Korea to see BTS-related sites. Or for the same reason he has spent close to $1,000 since 2018 on albums, concert tickets, shirts and other BTS merchandise. 
Milwaukee resident David Roberts is part of a fervent BTS fan base that helped the group sell more than 9 million albums in 2020. K-pop bands sold some 40 million albums worldwide that year. (Courtesy David Roberts) | BTS' music and its performing style got Roberts hooked. Led by 26-year-old RM, BTS is known for its well-crafted songs, semi-androgynous appearance and precision choreography. Rolling Stone magazine recently praised band members for their “magical levels of charisma, their genre-defying, sleek-but-personal music, even their casually nontoxic, skin-care-intensive brand of masculinity.” However, Roberts says the biggest reason he is a fan is the connection to the band he feels from watching countless behind-the-scenes videos and live fan chats. “You get to feel like you're almost friends with them,” Roberts says. BTS — the Beatles of Korean popular music, aka K-pop — is the most successful South Korean band to hit the United States and arguably the world. With a Billboard-topping four No. 1 albums in less than two years, the group has filled stadiums, both in-person (pre-COVID) and virtually (post-COVID). In October, BTS' two-day online show sold nearly 1 million tickets. A record-breaking year in K-pop helped South Korea become the fastest-growing music market in the world, according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). Korea's revenues from recorded music grew 44.8 percent from 2019 to 2020. Brazil was second with 24.5 percent growth. Source: “Global Music Report 2021,” IFPI, p. 14, https://tinyurl.com/sew7t48s Data for the graphic are as follows: | Country | Percentage of Revenue Growth | | South Korea | 44.8% | | Brazil | 24.5% | | Canada | 8.1% | | United States | 7.3% | | Germany | 5.1% | | Australia | 4.0% | | United Kingdom | 2.2% | | Japan | -2.1% | BTS is not the only K-pop group or artist riding a wave of South Korean music popularity. K-pop sold 40 million albums worldwide last year, including 9.1 million from BTS. U.S. record companies increasingly are pairing with K-pop music agencies and artists to produce music, while U.S. consumers are turning to South Korea to buy its products or plan visits. Indeed, K-pop has become both a business and cultural phenomenon, benefiting the South Korean economy while driving the U.S. music industry to adopt some of its fan-focused and high-tech approaches — especially important during a global pandemic that has shuttered most concert venues. Challenges remain, among them: Critics say K-pop music is guilty of cultural insensitivity and allege that some music agencies exploit their band members, while U.S. radio and record labels remain resistant to Korean-language recordings, which could limit future success. So far, though, the K-pop phenomenon shows no signs of slowing down. K-pop has helped boost South Korea's economy, both in direct music sales as well as in indirect revenues from sales of related products, such as food, cosmetics and clothes. “I always say K-pop is not just the music,” says Jeff Benjamin, who writes about K-pop for Billboard, the music industry magazine and website. “It really is about this kind of culture. People are definitely getting interested in Korean food, Korean fashion, Korean television.” 
Fans cheered for BTS as it performed in New York City's Central Park in May 2019. K-pop's popularity is leading the U.S. music industry to adopt some of its fan-focused, high-tech approaches. (Getty Images/Drew Angerer) | K-pop also benefits Korea's tourism industry. Before the government imposed COVID-19 restrictions, about 800,000 people visited South Korea for BTS-motivated reasons — 7.6 percent of all foreign tourists, the Korean Foundation for International Cultural Exchange found. The Seoul-based Hyundai Research Institute has estimated that BTS alone is worth $4.65 billion annually to the South Korean economy. And K-pop has helped make South Korea the world's fastest-growing music market, up 44.8 percent from 2019 to 2020, according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI). This compares to an overall growth rate of 7.4 percent for all markets. The IFPI does not release sales figures, but it ranks South Korea sixth behind the United States, Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany and France. The top four K-pop music companies reported combined sales of $1.5 billion in 2020. Partnerships U.S. music companies have noticed — and recently formed partnerships or merged with K-pop entities. In April BTS' management company, Hybe (formerly Big Hit Entertainment), bought Ithaca Holdings, owned by U.S. music manager Scooter Braun. Acquiring a stable of Ithaca's superstar artists, who include Justin Bieber and Ariana Grande, will likely further K-pop's expansion and influence in the United States. 
Fans gather at a Los Angeles “KCON,” or K-pop convention, in 2018, hoping for a glimpse of their idols. The genre's audience is mostly young and female. (Getty Images/Greg Doherty) | K-pop's popularity comes at a time when the U.S. music industry has been on an upswing, as it adjusted to the shift to streaming: Retail music revenues reached $12.2 billion in 2020, up from $9.7 billion in 2018, according to the Recording Industry Association of America. However, the pandemic hurt revenues due to the loss of concert ticket sales. “K-pop has been quite smart and innovative with how they handled the pandemic,” Billboard's Benjamin says, pointing to strategies such as selling club memberships and CDs bundled with photo books and other merchandise. Also, he says, South Korea's technological advantages — faster, better Wi-Fi and the development of streaming platforms — helped create fan bases accustomed to receiving content in this fashion, which helped mitigate the loss of touring revenue. Digital connection has been especially important during the pandemic, according to Jenna Gibson, a doctoral student in political science at the University of Chicago. K-pop artists have held virtual concerts, often featuring augmented reality. “The artists are dancing and then the background will fall away, and it looks like they're on a mountaintop,” Gibson says. “It's like 3D — it's very cool.” K-pop appeals to a diverse group of Americans, experts say, but demographic data are limited. Miranda Larsen, a Ph.D. candidate who studies Japanese popular culture at the University of Tokyo and has attended numerous “KCONs” (K-pop conventions) as a panelist, says that in recent years, “the attendees have skewed BIPOC [Black, Indigenous and people of color].” Crystal S. Anderson, who researches Korean popular music and culture at George Mason University in Fairfax, Va., says the fan base is “overwhelmingly female,” as well as ethnically and socioeconomically diverse. Benjamin says he has seen a growing number of minority and LGBTQ fans. “I do think there's a lot of connection” between those who may see themselves as “underdogs and seeing something that they can connect with — regardless of language,” he says. Besides BTS, other K-pop artists to achieve Western success include the “girl group” Blackpink, which has had a string of Billboard hits and is ranked by Bloomberg as the No. 11 most powerful pop star (BTS is No. 9). The all-male band SuperM hit No. 2 on Billboard's album chart last October with its first full-length album. The biggest K-pop artist before BTS was Psy, who released his megahit “Gangnam Style” in 2012. Seventy-nine percent of attendees at U.S. K-pop conventions (known as “KCONs”) in 2019 were female. The attendees' racial and ethnic makeup was diverse: 40 percent were Asian, 23 percent were Hispanic or Latino, 21 percent were white and 7 percent were Black. The conventions were held in New York and Los Angeles. Source: “A Flourishing Fan Base,” Billboard, accessed May 12, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/pp2y2px5 Data for the graphic are as follows: | Attendee Gender | Percentage in 2019 | | Women | 79% | | Men | 19% | | Identify as Other | 2% | | Attendee Race and Ethnicity | Percentage in 2019 | | Asian | 40% | | Hispanic/Latino | 23% | | White | 21% | | Black | 7% | | Other | 9% | K-pop uniquely mixes styles and genres, such as hip hop, R&B and traditional Korean music, says Anderson, who has written a book about Black influences on K-pop. Although BTS' “Dynamite” was in English, as is its newest single, “Butter,” debuting May 21, most K-pop songs are largely sung in Korean. The lack of English has limited K-pop on radio. But in today's YouTube and Spotify era, that has not seemed to matter, says Inkyu Kang, an associate professor of digital journalism at Pennsylvania State University. Fans can overcome language barriers via technologies, such as automatic captioning and translation apps. They also respond to messages that address universal concerns, such as bullying, depression and self-hate, which are prominent themes in BTS songs and particularly appeal to young people, Kang says. Benjamin agrees, noting that BTS' meaningful lyrics “became a trend in the larger K-pop scene,” influencing other groups to similarly craft deeper lyrics and themes. In “Life Goes On,” for example, BTS sang about the pandemic's impact on people's lives: “One day, the world stopped/Without any warning/Spring didn't know to wait.” K-pop's Impact The South Korean government began supporting K-pop in the late 1990s as part of its effort to promote the export of Korean arts and culture, an endeavor called Hallyu or Korean Wave. The government has spent millions on concert venue construction, holographic technology and subsidies for artists appearing outside Korea, says Gibson. In March, the government announced plans to build and run a $17.8 million K-pop online concert hall, so that musicians without deep pockets could put on high-tech virtual shows. The investments are part of a “soft power” strategy that South Korea hopes will help it internationally, Gibson says. “It is about creating friendly alliance ties, where you don't have to force anybody to do anything,” she says. “Ultimately, the goal is to support Korean policies on the international stage.” Gibson says it is unclear whether the strategy will work. So far, the government has not pushed any particular policies, she says. “But I could see a universe in which they tried to tap into this potential resource of so many fans.” South Korea's return on its investment in Hallyu appears to be paying off, says Anderson, adding that K-pop's importance transcends numbers. A chart posted on Statista, an online data portal, found that at $4.65 billion annually, BTS' contribution to the national economy is 0.3 percent. This amount has been updated to $4.9 billion, but it still is dwarfed by 13.1 percent for Samsung, the electronics giant, which has annual sales of almost $212 billion. However, Anderson says, beyond its budgetary impact, “K-pop introduces people to Korean culture in a way that your Samsung cellphone does not.” K-pop idols are seeking to exert social influence. Blackpink urged action to prevent climate change, for example. BTS supported UNICEF's campaigns to end child poverty and donated to Black Lives Matter. 
Blackpink, one of K-pop's girl groups, performs at a Los Angeles artist showcase in February 2019. The group is popular in the West and has a string of Billboard hits to its credit. K-pop lyrics are largely in Korean, which some say could limit the genre's reach in U.S. markets. (Getty Images/Universal Music Group/JC Olivera) | In March, BTS denounced anti-Asian hate, citing its own members' examples of being discriminated against. Fans have at times taken their “idols” — the term for K-pop stars — to task for cultural insensitivity and misappropriation, both of Black and South Asian cultures. Blackpink featured the statue of a Hindu god in a video, which drew criticism from fans and was withdrawn. The group Mamamoo wore blackface while performing a parody of Bruno Mars' “Uptown Funk” in 2017. American singer and former K-pop idol Alexandra Reid, the first African American in such a role, calls for K-pop companies to employ cultural liaisons to educate artists and agencies about such concerns. She said that from her time spent in South Korea, “I see how a lot of it isn't malicious and they truly don't know better.” However, Larsen says, Black fans who speak out — such as herself — have been criticized, called the “N” word and doxed (had personal information revealed) by non-Black fans on social media. Former trainees and idols allege K-pop's agency training model has led to eating disorders, stress and suicides. Other problems: low wages and exorbitant penalties for trying to leave a group. The South Korean government responded in 2017 by seeking to end “slave contracts” and other harmful practices, and experts say the actions have helped reduce mistreatment. “The K-pop management system has been far from perfect in the past,” said Bernie Cho, a South Korean music executive whose agency provides digital media and marketing help to K-pop artists. But, he said, the new regulations along with oversight by fans and stock market investors have reduced much of the problem. “The days of overbearing, overly controlling and overtly exploitative K-pop management situations are becoming less the rule and more the exception,” Cho said. Others defend rigorous training regimens for young people. “What makes K-pop K-pop is its training systems,” says Kang, the Penn State professor, who compares it to the Bolshoi Ballet. Aside from these controversies, K-pop at its best offers joy to audiences, says Jung-Min Mina Lee, an instructor of Asian and Middle Eastern studies at Duke University. “I was at a basketball game at Duke when ‘Gangnam Style’ came on,” Lee recalls. “It was so amazing, as a Korean person. All these people were not knowing the lyrics, but they're all dancing together in the stadium and having so much fun. And I think that's what K-pop offers.” Go to top Background Early Influences K-pop's roots largely date to Japan's 35-year occupation of Korea that began in 1910, when Japan tried to assimilate Koreans into its culture. Koreans were influenced by Japanese “Enka” music, which mixed Western and Japanese musical styles; the Koreans then added elements and began producing their own version, called “trot,” named after the foxtrot dance. Trot rhythms eventually found their way into K-pop. Following the 1950-53 Korean War in which the United States led a U.N. effort to defend South Korea from a North Korean invasion, many South Koreans heard U.S. popular music for the first time via Armed Forces radio and TV. South Korean musicians entertaining at U.S. military bases learned to blend the Western music favored by American soldiers — such as rock, hip-hop and R&B — with traditional Korean pop, says Kang. In 1992, the Korean group Seo Taiji and Boys performed a song on a TV talent show that blended hip-hop and dance with Korean pop — a performance that is considered the start of modern K-pop's first wave. The group lost the competition, but its song topped Korean music charts for the next 17 weeks. South Korea shifted from rule by the military, which had censored Western-style music, to democracy in the late 1980s and artistic freedom grew. In 1996, the boy band H.O.T. released its first hit single, while studios began building idol groups. A financial crash in 1997-98 prompted the South Korean government to launch its Hallyu strategy. K-pop groups such as Super Junior started becoming popular in other countries, mostly in Asia. In 2009, Japan was the largest importer of K-pop music, accounting for 70 percent, followed by Southeast Asia with 21 percent and China with 8 percent. Music companies worked to increase their appeal to Western markets by downplaying Korean references and creating “hook songs with English lyrics that didn't make much sense a lot of the time,” says Duke University's Lee. 
Korean rapper Psy (center) performs his megahit “Gangnam Style” at the 2013 inauguration of South Korea's newly elected president in Seoul. The song was the first U.S. crossover K-pop hit and the first to reach 1 billion YouTube views. (AFP/Getty Images/Starnews) | The first big U.S. crossover K-pop song was Psy's 2012 comic hit “Gangnam Style,” featuring a “horse-riding” dance video that was the first to hit 1 billion YouTube views (now more than 4 billion). Yet Psy is not typical of most K-pop artists, who tend to be toned, polished and, for men, near-androgynous. He did show, though, that U.S. audiences would be receptive to Korean-language music and that “being more culturally true” could sell in the West, says Lee. “That was a turning point in K-pop.” A third K-pop generation arose in 2013 that expanded the fusion of musical genres and styles while retaining its Koreanness. BTS debuted in 2013 and Blackpink in 2016. These and other artists were able to take advantage of streaming services and social media to reach audiences worldwide and increasingly in the United States. K-pop in recent years has targeted Japan, the world's second-largest music market after the United States, by including more Japanese members in K-pop groups, which industry officials say is key to success in the insular Japanese market. Some Japanese K-pop members make Japanese-only content. North Korea In 2016, South Korea retaliated against North Korea's nuclear weapons testing by blasting K-pop — including Big Bang's song “Bang Bang Bang” — over loudspeakers set up near the demilitarized zone between the two countries. North Korea's government forbids K-pop, although residents reportedly access it via smuggled flash drives. South Korea has broadcast K-pop, along with pro-democracy messages, at its northern neighbor off and on over the years, sometimes riling North Korea enough to threaten war if Seoul did not turn the music down. A more pleasant exchange occurred during a period of détente in 2018, when South Korean pop stars, such as the girl group Red Velvet, performed in North Korea for its leader, Kim Jong Un, who reported being “deeply moved.” However, North Koreans could only watch smuggled footage of the concert, because consuming South Korean music remains a crime that can result in imprisonment. 
North Korea's all-female Moranbong — the Communist regime's answer to South Korean K-pop bands — performs in Pyongyang in May 2016. The group plays more traditional music and wears less skimpy costumes than are seen in South Korea. (AFP/Getty Images/Ed Jones) | Kim has instead offered North Koreans an alternative: girl band Moranbong, formed in 2012, with members and setlists chosen by the supreme leader. The group plays more traditional music and wears less skimpy costumes than its South Korean K-pop counterparts. North Korea has continued its rhetorical attacks on K-pop and foreign cultural influences. In December, the country passed a law forbidding the spread of “anti-socialist ideology.” In March, it called BTS and Blackpink victims of “slave-like exploitation.” Go to top Current Situation Mergers and Acquisitions Big Hit Entertainment went public in October, making the BTS members, who had each been given about 68,500 shares, multimillionaires — a reward for the band generating 88 percent of Big Hit's sales in 2020 and 97 percent in 2019. The company was originally valued at about $8.5 billion, although stocks have fluctuated since the initial public offering. In February, Big Hit — renamed Hybe in April — announced a partnership with Universal Music Group, the world's largest music company. Universal's artists will take advantage of Hybe's Weverse social platform to better connect with fans, following the K-pop mold of closer, more personal interactions. The deal, the companies announced, will include a newly created label. “One of the things they talked about was making a joint venture label based in the U.S. with Korean oversight,” says Billboard's Benjamin. He says it will be interesting to see whether American artists will be able to work within the rigorous K-pop training and development system, possibly becoming part of a band that could contain more members than are typical with a U.S. band. Hybe then announced in April a billion-dollar deal to acquire Ithaca Holdings, the entertainment agency that represents many top U.S. artists. The deal makes Hybe one of the biggest globally focused music entertainment companies in the world. Bang Si-Hyuk, Hybe chairman and CEO, said the merger should help the two companies “transcend borders and break down cultural barriers.” Lee Gyu-tag, a professor of cultural studies at George Mason University's Korean campus, said the deal could give greater opportunity to other, less well-known Hybe bands such as Enhypen, Seventeen and GFriend, and “will benefit from the new promotion and distribution channels and also gain more notice in the U.S. and international market.” 
A poster of Big Hit Entertainment artists, including BTS, decorates the lobby of a Seoul brokerage firm as investors in October wait to get in on the initial public offering of the entertainment company. (AFP/Getty Images/Jung Yeon-Je) | Another K-pop industry deal took place in March between JYP Entertainment, a major music company that represents girl group Twice and boy band 2PM, and Chinese firm Tencent Music Entertainment Group. The two firms formed a partnership featuring joint marketing and promotional events, with JYP providing music by its artists to Tencent — and thereby to “hundreds of millions of music fans in China,” Tencent said in a statement. China had banned K-pop and other Korean cultural imports in 2016, after South Korea allowed a U.S. missile defense system to be built on its soil. However, in March, China appeared open to softening this stance, when it announced that a Chinese film will feature a member of the EXO K-pop group. K-pop is reportedly popular in China through pirate channels. Besides the mergers and acquisitions, two K-pop audition shows are in the works. One deal involves SM Entertainment and MGM Worldwide Television Group, headed by “Survivor” producer Mark Burnett, and would have a U.S. team of contestants go to South Korea to train to become a K-pop idol in the NCT-Hollywood boy band. HBO Max also announced a similar program, but featuring Latin American contestants who would train in Seoul. Such moves among K-pop companies and other music enterprises demonstrate the “synergy that can result from joining complementary approaches to music and entertainment,” says Hae Joo Kim, assistant chair of professional music at the Berklee College of Music in Boston. K-pop is well-positioned to meet the growing demand for content “beyond ‘just music’” in today's increasingly digitized music world, she says. Military Service for BTS? Hybe's deal with Ithaca Holdings should help it weather what otherwise could be a big setback — losing its most popular band for 18 months as members fulfill their commitments to South Korea's military. BTS' seven members range in age from 23 to 28, making them all subject to South Korea's law requiring men to serve in the military once they turn 28, if they have not done so already. Oldest BTS member Jin turned 28 in December, while Suga hit that milestone in March. In early December, parliament approved a bill allowing pop stars such as BTS members to defer their service to 30. The legislation specified that the criteria for the exemption would be decided through a presidential order, and the subsequent regulation decreed that individuals must have received the Order of Cultural Merit and permission from the minister of culture — criteria that in pop music only BTS could meet. Some music companies called the legislation unfair, saying it was created with BTS in mind and that their K-pop artists should be considered for exemptions and deferments, too. In April, the Korea Music Content Association, which has on its board of directors representatives from Universal Music Group, YG Entertainment and Hybe, filed a complaint over the situation. It is uncertain when BTS members will enter the military. In response to rumors that all the members would enlist together in 2022, Hybe said in April that it had nothing to add, beyond what BTS members had already said. Jin previously had commented: “If the nation calls me to do my military service, I will respond whenever that time is.” Whenever they go, said Gyu-tag, the George Mason professor, “the gap between new album releases will likely become longer in the future,” leaving open the question of how Big Hit and BTS' fans will fare, as well as the South Korean economy. Go to top Outlook “It Kept Evolving” Berklee's Kim says she used to be a K-pop skeptic. In the early to mid-2000s, she says, she kept wondering whether K-pop would attract only a small fringe audience — or, worse, was just a passing fad. Kim says she no longer thinks this. “It kept being vibrant, kept alive by incredible fandoms, and it kept evolving,” she says. Now, “it's here, it's arrived” and will not be fading any time soon. “The only constant in K-pop is change,” says George Mason's Anderson. She expects its innovations to continue, including more multinational groups such as the Z-Girls and Z-Boys — a pop group formed by a Korean music company, featuring members from Asian nations outside South Korea. Billboard's Benjamin also expects continued partnerships between U.S. and South Korean music entities. But he predicts these will occur earlier in an artist's career, so that the U.S. label will offer more “support from the get-go.” The University of Chicago's Gibson anticipates that within five years, U.S. radio “will get with the times and take these groups more seriously,” finally airing songs even if the lyrics are in Korean. Benjamin disagrees, suggesting that radio moves so slowly that this change is likely to take 10 to 15 years. Gibson warns K-pop could face a backlash as it grows more successful. She points to anti-Asian comments directed at BTS as an example: “We need to be prepared for that.” Pop audiences also can be fickle. “There is no guaranteed way to keep them satisfied,” says Penn State's Kang. But he says K-pop's ability to evolve will keep it relevant. For example, K-pop agencies used to carefully control entertainers to maintain the images they crafted for them, Kang says. Now, agencies allow fans and idols to connect. “The success of BTS and Blackpink would not have been possible without a strong bond with their fans,” he says. Gibson agrees. “There's a level of loyalty and community among fans that I think is part of K-pop's great success and also part of the longevity of a lot of these groups.” Go to top Pro/Con Pro
Ph.D. Candidate, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Information Studies, University of Tokyo. Written for CQ Researcher, May 2021 | The answer to this question is yes, but not for the reasons you may think. K-pop has its standout moments of cultural appropriation, particularly around Black hairstyles, fashion modes and posturing. (Some examples: BTS, G-DRAGON and Zico.) There are even more examples of cultural misappropriation in K-pop, less insidious infractions that add up to a bigger sting. The systemic issues with this entertainment form are far more wide-reaching, however. First, K-pop's problem lies in its branding as a K-product; this branding, coupled with the obfuscation of labor in the industry, attempts to package and market K-pop as somehow solely Korean. Do we consider a music video solely Korean because of the performers and the main language used? What if the melody and lyrics are written by Black creators, as so many K-pop songs are? What if the production design team is Japanese? Does the “Koreanness” come from the K-pop idol, many of whom are now not even Korean or raised in Korea? The industry's answer is that the system of production itself is the Korean element, but even that falls short when we consider K-pop's origins as a hybrid of Black American sound and the Japanese idol system. (K-pop is, after all, a deliberate answer to J-pop.) Second, K-pop has a “concept” addiction. The industry is built around comebacks and charting, with extended plays (EPs) and mini-albums leading to frequent media appearances, concert tours, endorsements and cycles of promotion. Individual music videos and the more frequent music releases usually have a “concept,” something akin to film studies' mise-en-scène. This makes instances of cultural appropriation/misappropriation hurt more deeply, because things like hairstyles, sacred imagery and stereotypical representations become costumes and decoration. (Watching a few music videos of Blackpink, CL and early BTS illustrates how “concept” fades into the outright offensive). There's little time to delve into a performer's awareness of particular symbols with this fast-paced system that portrays groups using a few supposedly intrinsic traits. Finally, K-pop and K-pop fandoms don't recognize the problematic. The chain of command is often erased, as is the below-the-line work that makes a music video or album happen. The K-product branding and “concept” format encourages fans toward toxic behavior where fair criticism somehow becomes “anti” and “hate” against the artist. K-pop is far more problematic than the industry and fans want to admit. | Con
Affiliate Faculty, Korean Studies, George Mason University. Written for CQ Researcher, May 2021 | K-pop is criticized for using elements of foreign cultures and ignoring the original context of those cultures, or for using foreign cultures in ways that demean or mock the original culture. To be sure, there are instances when K-pop misappropriates a culture, using elements of it in ways that are contrary to the original culture or in ways that mock or demean, such as incorporating sacred objects or engaging in negative racial performances such as blackface. However, many erroneously describe K-pop's use of foreign cultures as cultural appropriation, using the term to describe all instances where K-pop draws on a different culture. Doing so equates normal cultural interaction with cultural theft, mockery or disparagement. Cultural appropriation was originally an academic term used to describe the inevitable impact that one culture may have on another culture as they come into close contact. So, cultural appropriation critiques tend to generalize how K-pop interacts with other cultures. Contemporary use of the term cultural appropriation fails to recognize how K-pop represents cultures in an authentic way. For example, some may compare the way K-pop artists draw on African American popular music to how white musicians covered songs by Black musicians in the 1950s and 1960s. These white artists produced watered-down versions of these songs, devoid of the Black musical aesthetics that made them unique. They never referenced the original versions or recognized the established music tradition from which they came. On the other hand, K-pop artists render Black music aesthetics authentically in ways that are recognized by fans as well as Black creatives familiar with the culture. K-pop artists often talk about their musical influences. Song credits reveal the creative personnel on tracks, including African American producers and composers. The critique of cultural appropriation in K-pop also distorts all cultures involved. Such a critique ignores how musical traditions work and overlooks the nuances of those traditions. For example, Black popular music is a hybrid tradition made up of elements from different cultures. While Black songwriters, composers and artists have created a unique music tradition that draws on the experiences of African Americans, they have also reached across racial lines to work with white creatives to create that music. K-pop emulates this tradition of hybrid music. K-pop creatives work with Black popular music genres and artists and, at the same time, bring unique Korean production and creative strategies to the creation of K-pop music. | Go to top Discussion Questions Here are some questions to consider regarding K-pop: What accounts for its great popularity? What makes K-pop so distinctive? Can K-pop sustain its growth rate? Or is it a passing fad? Do you think the training of K-pop “idols” is exploitive? Why or why not? What do you think about the use of avatars? What are the drawbacks to using fake musicians? What are the upsides? Do you feel K-pop artists are insensitive to other cultures in their videos, choreography and use of lyrics? Go to top
Chronology
| | | | 1910s–1980s | Korean musicians are introduced to Japanese, American music. | | 1910-1945 | Japan's occupation of the Korean Peninsula exposes Koreans to Japanese “Enka” music, which helps form Korean trot, an influence in today's popular music known as K-pop. | | 1950s | In the aftermath of the Korean War, South Korean musicians entertaining at U.S. military bases learn to blend rock, hip-hop and R&B favored by American soldiers. | | 1979 | South Korean President Park Chung-hee is assassinated in a coup that installs Chun Doo-hwan as president; the regime imposes martial law and music censorship. | | 1987 | South Korea adopts democracy, allowing for more musical freedom. | | 1990s–2009 | K-pop experiences its first and second waves of growth. | | 1992 | Seo Taiji and Boys perform live on a TV music talent show, mixing rap with traditional Korean music to create a signature sound; music historians consider this the birth of modern K-pop. | | 1995 | Lee Soo-man, who develops an agency model to find, train and control “idols” (or stars), founds SM Entertainment. | | 1996 | Yang Hyun-suk, a former member of Seo Taiji and Boys, launches YG Entertainment. | | 1997 | J.Y. Park, a singer, songwriter and record producer, founds JYP Entertainment, the third major music company to be established in South Korea. | | 1997-98 | Asian financial crisis rocks the South Korean economy, leading the government to promote the export of Korean culture, including K-pop. | | 2005 | Big Hit Entertainment, the future home of K-pop super band BTS, is founded. | | 2008 | Government establishes a Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism, with a department for promoting the globalization of K-pop. | | 2009 | Wonder Girls' English-language version of “Nobody” is the first K-pop single to appear on Billboard's Hot 100 song chart. | | 2010–Present | From Psy to BTS, K-pop becomes popular in the United States. | | 2012 | Psy's “Gangnam Style” video earns 100 million views on YouTube within 51 days of its release, making it the first major U.S. K-pop hit. | | 2013 | BTS debuts with a song called “No More Dream.” | | 2017 | BTS becomes the first group with a primarily Korean-language song, “DNA,” to make the Billboard 100…. South Korea's Fair Trade Commission sets new rules protecting K-pop trainees, aimed at breaking “slave” contracts. | | 2018 | BTS' “Love Yourself: Tear” becomes the first K-pop album to debut at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 chart. | | 2019 | Several K-pop singers are accused of participating in the drugging of women for sex. | | 2020 | “How You Like That” — a single recorded by K-pop girl group Blackpink — sets a record for the biggest YouTube music video debut with 86.3 million views…. BTS' online concert draws nearly 1 million paying attendees…. Big Hit goes public…. South Korean government gives BTS a two-year extension on mandatory military service, as oldest member turns 28. | | 2021 | Big Hit announces a partnership with Universal Music Group; as part of the deal, a new label is in the works (February)…. International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) releases a report showing South Korea is the world's fastest-growing music industry (March)…. Big Hit, now known as Hybe, acquires Ithaca Holdings' stable of U.S. pop stars in a $1 billion deal (April). | | | | Go to top Short Features The opening shot features five girls in pink cheerleader skirts. “I'm real,” one croons, a half-smile on her face. “Let's awake a real girl.” Images of the girls in various costumes and settings flash past, singing and dancing. “Not an illusion! Not a fake!” they rap. Don't believe them. Eternity is a new K-pop group made up of “girls” who are all digital creations. In other words, not real. The virtual group was launched in March by a South Korean artificial intelligence company, Pulse9, which said the band members were made using deepfake technology it had developed called Deep Real AI, with faces created from synthesized images. No word on who is doing the singing, although it too is likely computer-generated. The video “I'm Real” had garnered more than 550,000 views in its first two months on YouTube, along with comments such as: “Sorry, it's the scariest thing of K-pop I have ever seen. No hate, but it's soooo creepy.” Pulse9 says the band has 11 members, although only five appear in group shots on the video. Plans are for members to release solo songs and work as market influencers and brand models, the company says. One has already appeared in a brokerage firm ad. Eternity is not K-pop's first virtual singing group. In November, SM Entertainment, one of the top musical agencies in the genre, debuted girl group Aespa with four human members and four avatar versions of themselves to share performing and publicity duties. Aespa's name is a combination of “avatar,” “experience” and “aspect.” Aespa's avatars, though, do not look as human as the Eternity girls do. Their faces have a cartoonish, anime quality that makes them distinguishable from the real thing, even in videos posted online. Lee Soo-man, founder and chairman of SM Entertainment, said Aespa is “the beginning of the future of entertainment,” with celebrity avatars fitting into peoples' lives “like a living person, like a friend.” Fans also will be able to generate avatars for themselves and interact in a virtual world, using a smartphone app called SYNK. 
Eternity's “I'm Real” video garnered more than 550,000 views in its first two months on YouTube. The use of digital musicians is generating fears that some fans may use the avatars for deepfake pornography. (Screenshot) | Aespa and Eternity have “some ties to the wider virtual idol movement that's really popular in Japan and China,” says Miranda Larsen, a Ph.D. candidate in information technology and Asian society at the University of Tokyo who studies fan culture. Larsen has attended concerts put on by Japan's famous virtual singer, Hatsune Miku, who started performing via projection screen in 2009 and opened for Lady Gaga during her 2014 concert tour. Miku, who sings via computer generation, is beamed in as a hologram, surrounded by excited fans waving light sticks and singing along to her hits. “I was like, that's an amazing projection,” says Larsen, who was surprised by how real Miku seemed. Potential for Misuse? Larsen, however, says she is skeptical about Aespa, especially if fans use augmented reality technology in their homes to interact with the avatars. “It becomes very questionable about what's allowed and what's not,” she says, raising the specter of simulated sexual activity. “When I first saw the images for Aespa and saw the [real members] standing side by side with the [virtual ones], I went, ‘Oh, no.’ Especially with the release statement about how the virtual verson would allow greater intimacy with the fan…. It was so shady.” Others, too, are concerned that some fans might use the avatars for deepfake pornography. “Because these are virtual idols [or stars], they are not legally protected from digital sex crimes or sexual harassment,” said Lee Hye Jin, a clinical assistant professor at the Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism at the University of Southern California. Female K-pop stars have long been used in deepfake pornography, said Thomas Baudinette, a lecturer in international studies at Macquarie University in Sydney. “The idea underlying Aespa's virtual idols leaves them open to the possibility of problematic use.” Eternity and Aespa are not the only K-pop groups with virtual members. Another female virtual idol group, K/DA, debuted in 2018 as a video game offshoot, featuring anime-like members based on League of Legends characters. They “sing” using the voices of real-life singers and have collaborated with members of the K-pop group (G)-IDLE. Last year, K-pop girl group Blackpink partnered with an augmented reality app, Zepeto, to create personalized avatars of the group members, as well as with their “Ice Cream” song collaborator, Selena Gomez. In one event, fans could interact with the avatars via the app and collect virtual autographs and other prizes. Will the virtual K-pop idol trend continue? Entertainment companies will likely see economic benefits from such a practice. AI idols can do superhuman work — seeing many more fans, for example. They do not sleep or eat, get sick or generate scandals that can ruin their careers and cost their managers money, says Larsen. “I do think this is part of K-pop's impulse to innovate,” says Crystal S. Anderson, a K-pop scholar at George Mason University in Virginia. “It might work in Japan and in other places in East Asia, but it may not work anywhere else. Or it could be that this is the next big thing that's going to circulate around the world, and we'll see virtual artists popping up all over the place. It's not really clear — it's so new.” However, Anderson says she is concerned about how the music — which should be K-pop's primary emphasis — is presented. If it is subpar or is a machine-created afterthought, with the music taking a backseat to visual effects, then she says she is not a fan of using avatars. “I do not think that's in the best interest of K-pop, because that is not what spread K-pop around the world,” Anderson says. — Lorna Collier
Bibliography
Books
Anderson, Crystal S., Soul in Seoul: African American Popular Music and K-pop, University Press of Mississippi, 2020. A Korean studies scholar at George Mason University in Virginia explores the critical impact Black music has had on the development of K-pop, the globally popular musical genre.
Lee, Hark Joon, and Dal Yong Jin, K-Pop Idols: Popular Culture and the Emergence of the Korean Music Industry, Lexington Books, 2019. A journalist (Lee) and communications professor at Simon Fraser University in Canada (Jin) examine the underside of the K-pop idol system by following the band Nine Muses.
Articles
“‘I could have been a K-pop idol — but I'm glad I quit,’” BBC, Feb. 13, 2020, https://tinyurl.com/uuvrnap7. One-time K-pop trainee Euodias describes her decision to quit her grueling K-pop training, begun at age 10, after she was told she would need plastic surgery to win a band slot.
Bell, Crystal, “For K-pop Fans, Learning Korean Is About Connection,” MTV, April 7, 2020, https://tinyurl.com/yvt34eyk. A writer finds that more K-pop fans are seeking to learn Korean, and that Korean language enrollment at U.S. universities jumped 13.7 percent between 2013 and 2016.
Bruner, Raisa, “BTS's Parent Company Is Going Public. Here's How the Music Industry Could Replicate Its Massive Success,” Time, Oct. 14, 2020, https://tinyurl.com/784znss2. A journalist shows how the music agency Big Hit's method of grooming talent rather than bidding for “the next kid with the latest TikTok hit” might be a better strategy for others to follow.
Collins, Hattie, “‘No One Else Wanted To Be Openly Gay. So I Stood Up.’ K-pop Star Holland Explains Why He Had To Come Out,” Vogue, Feb. 20, 2020, https://tinyurl.com/4az7cvz2. One of the first openly gay K-pop artists describes his quest for acceptance.
Gibson, Jenna, “How South Korean Pop Culture Can Be a Source of Soft Power,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Dec. 15, 2020, https://tinyurl.com/2wvk5t96. A doctoral student in political science at the University of Chicago finds that by supporting cultural exports, South Korea is changing its image and increasing its global influence, potentially helping its political goals.
Kim, Regina, “K-Pop Is Only Half the Story of Korean Pop Music,” Rolling Stone, Dec. 9, 2020, https://tinyurl.com/p8p7cw8n. A music writer says other types of Korean music exist besides K-pop, including trot (an updated version of the foxtrot dance).
Kirk, Mimi, “K-Pop Makes the Scene in Seoul,” Bloomberg CityLab, Aug. 9, 2016, https://tinyurl.com/5ysnf384. With a study showing that South Korea gets back $5 for every $1 invested in K-pop, the government decided to subsidize a Seoul neighborhood to support the music genre.
Lu, Marian, “The branding genius of K-pop band BTS,” The Washington Post, Jan. 30, 2020, https://tinyurl.com/89k29yba. A reporter explores the economic impact of BTS, the leading K-pop band, on products and how it generates billions of dollars of sponsorships.
Pegolo, Valentina, “How K-Pop's Record Labels Exploit Its ‘Idols,’” Jacobin Magazine, July 2020, https://tinyurl.com/ervt9ppc. A doctoral candidate in international relations says old-school K-pop management companies dehumanize their stars and are thus an example of “capitalism on steroids.”
Reports and Studies
“Global Hallyu Trends, 2020: Diagnosing the present and future of Hallyu across the world,” Korean Foundation for International Cultural Exchange, 2020, https://tinyurl.com/4fu4jkur. A cultural exchange group provides an in-depth analysis of Korean cultural export trends, including K-pop, and how they have been affected by the pandemic.
Lin, Xi, and Robert Rudolf, “Does K-pop Reinforce Gender Inequalities? Empirical Evidence From a New Data Set,” Research Institute of Asian Women, Dec. 31, 2017, https://tinyurl.com/6tsuez36. Korea University researchers studied 6,317 K-pop fans from 100 countries and found that the industry as promoted by the Korean government includes elements that might be bolstering a sexist culture and traditional gender roles, thus harming women's fight for equality.
Go to top The Next Step Business of K-pop Cao, Steffi, “How Korean Pop Groups Are Formed — An Introduction To The K-Pop Trainee Process,” BuzzFeed, May 13, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/p3myxcsz. In the competition to create K-pop stars known as idols, music companies seek out rappers, dancers and visually attractive performers. Garcia, Tonya, “McDonald's to launch BTS meal in collaboration with K-pop band in the U.S. in May,” MarketWatch, April 20, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/eywrnzkz. McDonald's collaboration with BTS, the leading K-pop band, will mark the first time a celebrity meal will be available globally. Sajnach, Paulina, “The Korean Wave: From PSY to BTS — The Impact of K-Pop on the South Korean Economy,” Asia Scotland Institute, Jan. 22, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/ztjhfwjs. K-pop's expansion has benefited the South Korean economy in myriad ways, in some cases through direct collaboration between bands and the government to drive tourism. Controversies Liew, Kendrea, “Future of entertainment? Avatars could be K-pop's next superstars,” CNBC, Jan. 10, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/w4zn5n5f. Virtual K-pop stars who never age could lead to impossibly high beauty standards for human stars, and the technology could also be used to create deepfakes, critics say. Yeo, Gladys, “Korean music labels file complaint over new military deferment law,” NME, April 9, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/52tf225t. In a lawsuit against the defense ministry, a South Korean music association calls new rules on military deferments unrealistic, as well as unfair for nearly all K-pop musicians. Yun, Hyeong, “Inside the Bullying Scandal Cancelling South Korean Celebrities,” Vice, March 11, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/n2z6rsey. Former classmates have accused several K-pop stars of bullying, and some of the performers apologized for their behavior before they became idols. Pandemic “‘Not during Ramadan!’ Fans disappointed as K-Pop's BTS announce virtual concert during Holy month,” Arab News, April 13, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/yavu2udm. BTS' decision to hold a virtual concert during Ramadan, the month-long Islamic holiday, upset some Muslim fans. Manson, Destine, “How K-pop groups create community during COVID-19,” Washington Square News, April 12, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/ys2mav7n. Because live performances cannot take place during the COVID-19 pandemic, young K-pop fans have created dance videos and online content to maintain a sense of community. Park, Juwon, “BTS, Blackpink are gaining momentum, but lesser-known K-pop bands are struggling amid the pandemic,” USA Today, Dec. 15, 2020, https://tinyurl.com/yen5jmsp. Most new K-pop groups fail, and the pandemic has made the odds of success even steeper. United States Guy, Jack, “K-pop stars BTS share racial discrimination they faced,” CNN, March 30, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/2psnvry7. BTS has weighed in on American social issues on multiple occasions, speaking out against a wave of violence against Asian Americans and donating to Black Lives Matter. McIntyre, Hugh, “K-Pop Powerhouses SHINee Command Almost 30% Of The Top 10 On The World Songs Chart,” Forbes, April 20, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/38pzsjvd. The K-pop group SHINee simultaneously debuted three songs on a global Top 10 digital sales list, a rare achievement that is in part due to its growing popularity in the United States. Siegler, Mara, “Justin Bieber to collaborate with K-pop superstars BTS on new song,” Page Six, May 12, 2021, https://tinyurl.com/jta4kd93. An upcoming collaboration between pop icon Justin Bieber and BTS seems to be the result of the merger between their record companies. Go to top Contacts Asia Society Korea
212-288-6400
asiasociety.org/korea
facebook.com/askoreacenter/
Nonprofit educational institution with U.S. locations in Houston, Los Angeles, New York and Washington, as well as offices in Asia; produces email newsletter on Korean culture, including information on K-pop webinars. Association for Korean Music Research
https://tinyurl.com/9dnw3rx7
facebook.com/groups/574453839275652
A community of scholars and performers affiliated with the Society for Ethnomusicology who promote, exchange and advance the study of Korean music. Many of its scholars work on K-pop as a primary research area. Bangtan Scholars
600 Cleveland St., Suite 300, Clearwater, FL 33755
bangtanscholars.com
Research-oriented fan site, co-founded by Ph.D. students who organize gatherings to share research on BTS, the leading K-pop group. KCON
3333 Redondo Ave., Stage 19, Manhattan Beach, CA 90266
213-355-1600
kconusa.com
Events group that organizes fan celebrations of Korean culture, music and K-pop, held in 24 locales over four continents; in the United States, KCONs are staged in Los Angeles and New York. Korea Creative Content Agency
5509 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, CA 90036
323-935-5001
kocca.kr/en/main.do
South Korean governmental agency that, among other things, recruits rising musicians and provides concert support. U.S. BTS Army
usbtsarmy.com
usbtsarmy@gmail.com
Unofficial fan club for BTS; provides information, schedules and other information on the K-pop band. Weverse
Weverse.io
Contact@benx.co
Korean social platform that provides a sign-up to the official BTS fan club; also offers a store and ways for fans to connect with BTS via video. Go to top
Footnotes
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About the Author
Lorna Collier has written about business, technology and other topics for AARP Bulletin, U.S. News & World Report, Chicago Tribune, Discover and others. She has reported about universal basic income, college debt and COVID-19's impact on mental health for CQ Researcher.
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Document APA Citation
Collier, L. (2021, May 21). K-pop. CQ researcher, 31, 1-20. http://library.cqpress.com/
Document ID: cqresrre2021052100
Document URL: http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre2021052100
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